Get Educated

Since 1990, the Green Restaurant Association has led the Green Restaurant^® movement. As trailblazers in this arena, we are proud to share the knowledge, statistics, and hard facts that have been gathered and tested along the way.

The GRA’s mission is to create an ecologically sustainable restaurant industry. With this mission in mind, we believe that knowledge is power. For the past two decades, we’ve provided solutions, tools, guidance, and education, proving that change is possible.

In this section, you’ll find the most up-to-date information about pressing issues that our restaurants and environment face.

"If you want one year of prosperity, plant corn.
If you want ten years of prosperity, plant trees.
If you want one hundred years of prosperity, educate people."

— Chinese proverb

Introduction

As the human population continues to experience exponential growth, currently exceeding 6.7 billion people, our unsustainable consumption and waste threaten the stability of our ecological life support system. Scientists believe that humans are approaching or have already exceeded the Earth’s carrying capacity, defined as the maximum population that can be supported without lasting detrimental effects to ecosystems.

At the 1997 Kyoto Climate Summit, The Union of Concerned Scientists set forth a Call for Action which was signed by more than 1,500 scientists from 63 countries, including 110 Nobel laureates and 60 US National Medal of Science winners in an appeal to reason:

“Human activities inflict harsh and often irreversible damage on the environment and on critical resources. If not checked, many of our current practices put at serious risk the future that we wish for human society and the plant and animal kingdoms.”

Fortunately, many of the solutions to these challenges are available today. As members of the global economy, we can turn the tide and shift our course toward one of balance. The Green Restaurant Association (GRA) is working to create an environmentally sustainable restaurant industry, calling attention to the fact that this sector accounts for 10% of the U.S. economy. With a creative blend of consulting, education, marketing, research, and consumer organizing, the GRA makes helps restaurants and their customers understand the environmental challenges facing the restaurant industry, and empowers them with clear solutions to combat these environmental issues.

Americans spend forty-eight percent of their food budget on food consumed away from home ($1,078 per person annually), dining at over 945,000 restaurants (1). Tapping into the consumer need and want to eat out offers a great opportunity to reduce the restaurant industry’s “ecological footprint” and affect change. Please join us in reducing our footprint so that we can walk in balance with the Earth, both in the present and in future generations. The 1,500 scientists who signed the Call for Action at the Kyoto Summit summed it up: "There is only one responsible choice -- to act now."

Overpopulation & Industrialization

The world population increased from 3 billion individuals in 1959 to 6 billion by 1999, a doubling that occurred over 40 years. The Census Bureau's latest projections imply that population growth will continue into the 21st century, although at a slightly slower pace. The world population is projected to grow from 6.7 billion in 2008 to 9 billion by 2040 (2). To put this in perspective, every second, an average of five human births and two deaths occur – this is a net gain of three people. At this rate, the human population is increasing by roughly 10,800 people every hour (3).

The primary causes of today’s environmental imbalances are the consumption and waste of the industrialized and newly industrializing nations. With just 4.5 percent of the human population, the U.S. consumes 25% of the world’s produced oil. The U.S. is also the world's second largest emitter of greenhouse gases behind China, which produces a large quantity of goods purchased by U.S. consumers. While other countries such as India have much larger populations than the U.S., they currently have a smaller total impact on ecosystems. This is because a country’s environmental impact is determined by its per capita consumption and disposal of resources multiplied by the total amount of people. Although countries like India currently don’t consume on the level of Americans, if India and the rest of the world adopted the consumption and pollution patterns of the U.S., we would need 5.3 Earths to sustain everyone (4).

Our impact on this earth is measured by Ecological Footprint (EF) assessments. An EF is the biologically productive area (land, rivers, lakes, sea) required to produce the resources (food, energy, materials) and absorb the wastes of a population. The largest portion of our global Ecological Footprint comes from the burning of fossil fuels, followed by the use of crop and pastureland. Since the late 1980s, our global Ecological Footprint has exceeded the Earth’s biocapacity – as of 2003 by about 25% (5). Humanity as a whole is running an ecological deficit.

Additional Resources

UN Interactive Population Center, www.unfpa.org
Redefining Progress, www.rprogress.org
U.S. Census Bureau www.census.gov

Air Pollution and Ozone Depletion

Clean air is one of the building blocks necessary for a heath eco-system, but currently our air quality is at risk. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) air quality monitoring network indicates that almost 50% of Americans live in counties with unhealthy air due to one or more criteria air pollutants (6).

The EPA is required under The Clean Air Act of 1970 to set National Ambient Air Quality Standards for six common air pollutants. These commonly found air pollutants (also known as "criteria pollutants") are found all over the United States. They are particle pollution (often referred to as particulate matter), ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Exposure to these pollutants is associated with numerous effects on human health, including increased respiratory symptoms, heart or lung diseases, and even premature death (7). The number one source of industrial air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) for electricity production (8).

The ozone layer in the earth’s atmosphere is our layer of protection against deadly ultraviolet-B radiation from the sun. Ozone depletion therefore is a very serious problem resulting primarily from the production of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s). CFC’s were discovered in 1928, proven to deplete the ozone layer in 1974, and in 1978 were banned in aerosols in the U.S. By the mid-1980s, concern over CFC’s grew worldwide when the Antarctic Ozone Hole was measured, revealing its depletion, a catastrophe if left unabated.

In 1987, 57 industrial nations signed the Montreal Protocol, the first global environmental agreement. The developed countries agreed to stop all production of CFC’s on January 1, 1996, and the other countries committed to end production by 2006. Today, several CFC-substitutes are in use, and more are expected from manufacturers. As a result, the ozone layer has already shown signs of recovery. It is believed that if the international agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050 (9). The global solution to end CFC production and slow ozone depletion provides hope that humans can come together to solve other environmental threats such as global warming.

Water Pollution

Water pollution is divided into two categories: “point source pollution” and “non-point source pollution.” Point sources of water pollution are stationary locations such as sewage treatment plants, factories and ships. Non-point sources are more diffuse and include agricultural runoff, mining activities and runoff from paved roads.

Current farming practices often result in the release of sediment, fertilizers, pesticides and animal wastes into local watersheds. The local impact has often worsened as smaller family farms have been replaced by factory operations such as Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFO’s). Factory farms have multiplied in recent years, spreading into many states that lack adequate environmental controls. Every year almost two trillion pounds of animal waste are produced nationally from 1.5 billion cattle, hogs, poultry and sheep (10). Livestock grazing in riparian zones - the thin ribbons of green vegetation that border rivers, streams and other water bodies - is responsible for degraded water quality, increased erosion and runoff, damaged fish and wildlife habitat, and decreased recreational opportunities. With controlled grazing strategies or restricting livestock completely from these sensitive areas, many of the detrimental impacts to water quality can be minimized or greatly reduced.

In 2002, states reported that about 45% of assessed stream miles, 47% of assessed lake acres, and 32% of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were not clean enough to support uses such as fishing and swimming. About 30% of U.S. waters were assessed by the states for this report. Leading causes of impairment in assessed waters include excess levels of nutrients, metals (primarily mercury), sediment and organic enrichment. Top sources of impairment include agricultural activities, hydrologic modifications, atmospheric deposition, industry, and unknown or unspecified sources (11).

Additional Resources

Environmental Defense, www.scorecard.com
Natural Resources Defense Council, www.nrdc.org
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, www.epa.gov

Deforestation

Healthy forest ecosystems benefit people in many ways. They provide food, water and materials, regulate floods, drought, support soil formation and nutrient cycling, provide habitat for wildlife and supply recreational and other nonmaterial benefits. For hundreds of millions of years, forests have covered much of the Earth’s surface (12).

Over the past 8,000 years, nearly half of the Earth’s forests have been destroyed. Globally, only 20% of the original forests remain pristine and undisturbed (13). In the U.S., only 4% of the ancient forests remain standing. The world’s rainforests are clear-cut at a rate of 214,000 acres per day, an area larger than New York City. If deforestation continues at current rates, nearly all tropical rainforest ecosystems will be destroyed by 2030 (12).

The primary cause for deforestation is the consumption patterns of the industrialized nations. In the rainforests, logging, cattle ranching, mining, oil extraction, hydroelectric dams, and subsistence farming are the leading causes of habitat destruction.

According to some estimates, less than 10 percent of forests worldwide can be considered old growth, or undisturbed for more than a century. And that is not just a tragedy for the plants and animals that require mature forests—it is also a tragedy for the world's climate, as old-growth forests are highly effective carbon sinks (14). Solutions to deforestation include reducing our consumption of raw materials, increasing use of reused and recycled materials, and buying wood products, that come with the Forest Stewardship Council Certification.

Additional Resources

World Resources Institute, http://forests.wri.org
USDA Forest Service: Roadless Area Conservation, http://roadless.fs.fed.us
Food and Agriculture Organization, www.fao.org
World Resources Institute, www.wri.org
Forest Stewardship Council www.fsc.org

Soil Degradation & Desertification

U.S. croplands are eroding up to seven times faster than they are naturally created (15). Soil takes hundreds of years to form and is naturally removed by the action of water or wind. Such “background” soil erosion has been occurring for millions of years. But “accelerated” soil erosion is a much more recent problem. It is a result of human activities such as overgrazing or unsuitable cultivation practices, which leave the land vulnerable during times of strong rainfall or windstorms.

It is estimated that topsoil erosion currently reduces productivity on 29 percent of U.S. cropland and negatively affects 39 percent of rangeland (16). The loss of soil from farmland can lower surface water quality, damage drainage networks and reduce crop production. (17).

A related environmental concern is desertification: the change of fertile land into desert. This process takes place in drier climates where the Earth is especially fragile, where rainfall is low and the climate harsh. Climatic changes can trigger the desertification process, but frequently human activities are the primary cause. Over-cultivation exhausts the soil, deforestation removes trees that prevent soil erosion, and overgrazing of livestock strips the land of grasses that prevent soil erosion (18).

Certain conservation measures can reduce soil erosion and desertification, such as contour plowing, strip cropping, terracing, or using trees for wind barriers.

Additional Resources

UN Convention to Combat Desertification, www.unccd.int
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre, www.unep-wcmc.org
U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service, www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/land/erosion.html

Extinction & Loss of Biodiversity

Over the course of geologic history, the Earth has experienced at least five mass extinctions where two-thirds or more of existing species disappear. The primary causes of these mass extinctions include global temperature and sea level changes, volcanic activity and meteor impacts. Many scientists believe we are now undergoing the sixth such mass extinction since life began, only this one is caused by humans (19).

Species are estimated to be heading toward extinction at a rate of about one every 20 minutes, a pace that is one thousand times faster than the Earth has ever experienced in its long history (20).

A diverse ecosystem is important. Biodiversity actually boosts ecosystem productivity where each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play. It is this combination that enables the ecosystem to possess the ability to prevent and recover from a variety of disasters. A healthy biodiversity provides other natural services including protection of water resources, soils formation and protection, nutrient storage and recycling, pollution breakdown and absorption, and a contribution to climate stability (21).

Additional Resources

World Wildlife Fund: Global Network, www.panda.org Rainforest Action Network, www.ran.org Endangered Species Coalition, www.stopextinction.org World Resources Institute: Global Biodiversity Assessment, www.wri.org/biodiv/gba-unpr.html Conservation International, www.conservation.org

Climate Change

The Earth’s weather and climate originate from the sun. Solar rays enter through the atmosphere and warm the Earth’s surface. The Earth’s surface then radiates infrared heat back into the atmosphere. Some of this heat escapes into space, and some is trapped by “greenhouse gases.” Certain greenhouse gases occur naturally including water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Without the natural “greenhouse effect” temperatures would be much lower than they are now, and life as we know it on Earth would not be possible. However, certain human activities add to the levels of most greenhouse gases. Excess greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is now causing global climate change to occur at rates faster than ecosystems can adapt. Climate change refers to long-term fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, wind, and other elements of the Earth’s climate system.

A record of Earth’s climate, dating back 400,000 years, has been decoded from air bubbles within ice core samples from Greenland and Antarctica. Beginning as much as 8,000 years ago, atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide began to rise at abnormal rates as humans started clearing forests, planting crops and raising livestock. Carbon that was once stored in the biomass of forests, was freed up to enter the atmosphere in gaseous forms such as carbon dioxide. In the late 18th century, air pollution from human industrialization began to dramatically change the chemical composition of the atmosphere.

The primary sources of greenhouse gases have been the combustion of fossil fuels for automobiles, electricity, and heat (8). Other causes include industrial agriculture, deforestation, landfills, industrial production, and mining. Since the Industrial Revolution, concentrations of carbon dioxide have increased 35%, methane concentrations have more than doubled, and nitrous oxide concentrations have risen by about 15% (22). The U.S. now leads the world in greenhouse gas pollution, contributing about 20% of total emissions. The buildup of greenhouse gases is causing the Earth’s surface temperature to rise at an accelerated rate. Greenhouse gases are expected to be on the rise for many decades to come. Even after greenhouse gas concentrations have been stabilized, sea level and ice sheets will continue to respond to warming for many centuries.

The IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES, 2000) projects an increase of global GHG emissions by 25 to 90% (CO2-eq) between 2000 and 2030, with fossil fuels maintaining their dominant position in the global energy mix to 2030 and beyond. More recent scenarios without additional emissions mitigation are comparable in range (23).

Climate change can affect human health directly by more frequent floods and storms. Indirect impacts from climate change include increases in disease transmission by mosquitoes and water-borne pathogens, lower quality water and air, and famine. Recent regional changes in climate, particularly increases in temperature, have already affected hydrological systems as well as terrestrial and marine ecosystems in many parts of the world (e.g. coral reefs). Overall, climate change is projected to increase threats to human health, particularly in lower income populations, predominantly within tropical and subtropical countries. Solutions to global warming and climate change include expanding renewable and non-polluting energy infrastructure, reforestation, and limiting greenhouse gas pollution (24).

Additional Resources

• EPA Global Warming Site, www.epa.gov/globalwarming
• U.S. Global Change Research Program, www.usgcrp.gov
• Global Warming Information Page, www.globalwarming.org
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, www.ipcc.ch

Disposable Products

In 1969, 270,000 tons of disposable plates and cups were used in the U.S (25). By 1997, Americans were generating 1.8 million tons of quick serve food packaging (plates, cups, bowls, and other products), less than 1% of which was recycled. In less than 30 years, the U.S. increased its use of disposable plates and cups by about 700% (26). It would take, on average, 132,743 garbage trucks to carry this amount of packaging, which, if lined up bumper-to-bumper, would stretch from Philadelphia to Chicago. In 1994 alone, nearly 39 billion pieces of disposable cutlery, more than 113 billion disposable cups and nearly 29 billion disposable plates were used. Currently, land-based litter contains 12% plastic and 34% paper, while marine litter contains 61% plastic and 11% paper. (26).

Packaging represents roughly 30¢ of every dollar you spend on packaged goods and up to 60% of what you throw away (27). This means you pay twice: once for the packaging as part of the purchased product, and again for disposal. National studies indicate that about one and a half pounds of trash are produced for each restaurant meal that is served. At fast food restaurants, approximately 200 pounds of waste are generated for every $1,000 in sales (27).

Paper

Problem:

Deforestation and land degradation due to products made from virgin tree fiber Land and water pollution due to certain bleaching agents (such as chlorine)

Paper accounts for 34% of the municipal waste stream

Solution

When disposable products are required for business operations:

• Purchase products with the highest post-consumer recycled content available
• Purchase non-bleached, or chlorine-free paper products.

Recycled Paper Products

The term “recycled” can have many different meanings. If a product is labeled as “30% post-consumer recycled material” it means that 30% of the materials were used by consumers, returned to a recycling facility and remade into the product you now hold in your hand. The terms “recovered, pre-consumer,” or “post-industrial recycled material” refers to leftover materials from the manufacturing process that have not yet been used by consumers and generally would have been put back into the manufacturing process anyway. If a product says "Made of recycled material" chances are it is referring to the latter. The minimum requirement for a product to be labeled "made of recycled material" is 40% pre-consumer waste, and only 10% post-consumer waste. The remaining 50% can be from virgin pulp (28).

Every ton of 100% post-consumer waste recycled paper products you buy saves 12 trees, 1,196 gallons of water, 1,087 pounds of solid waste, 3 cubic yards of landfill space, 1,560 kilowatts of energy, 1,976 lbs. of greenhouse gases and 390 gallons of oil (29).

Paper Bleaching

That crisp sheet of white paper you hold in your hand most likely achieved its whiteness by chemical bleaching. Virgin wood pulp or recycled paper is bleached with chlorine and the reactions produce highly toxic substances. The most dangerous of these includes a family of 75 different chemical compounds known as dioxins, and thousands of other chemicals called organochlorines. The U.S. EPA Dioxin Reassessment has found dioxins 300,000 times more potent as a carcinogen than DDT (a toxic pesticide that was banned in the U.S. in 1972) (30).

Research has conclusively linked dioxins to cancer and severe reproductive and developmental problems. Dioxin is well known for its ability to damage the immune system and interfere with hormonal systems. The EPA believes that it is important to continue to limit emissions and human exposure to this class of chemicals in view of the very long biological and environmental persistence of these chemicals (31).

A paper mill using chlorine chemistry will use between 40-50,000 gallons of fresh water for every ton of pulp, and will release 40-50,000 gallons of water contaminated with persistent bio-accumulative toxins. A chlorine-free pulp mill uses 2,000 gallons of water per ton of pulp, and creates no persistent organic pollutants or bio-accumulative toxins (32).

Other Paper Bleaching Terms

Unbleached: Paper that is either brown (“kraft”) or dyed during papermaking. This process avoids the environmental impact of certain bleaching processes.

Processed Chlorine Free (PCF): Recycled paper that is whitened without the use of chlorine or chlorine derivatives. Common bleaching agents are hydrogen peroxide, oxygen, and ozone. Certification from the Chlorine Free Products Association identifies that the product also contains at least 30% post-consumer content and that the mill does not use old growth forest for any of the virgin pulp.

Totally Chlorine Free (TCF): Virgin paper made without the use of chlorine or chlorine derivatives. The distinction between TCF and PCF is environmentally misleading. While TCF sounds better, PCF is more environmentally sound, since this term is reserved for recycled rather than virgin papers. Certification from the Chlorine Free Products Association identifies that the mill also does not use old growth forest for any of the virgin pulp.

Elemental Chlorine Free (ECF): Paper that is whitened with chlorine compounds (such as chlorine dioxide). While this is a significantly cleaner process than chlorine gas bleaching, it still causes the formation of harmful organochlorides, which are released into the environment. ECF is not as safe as PCF or TCF processes.

Chlorine Gas: This bleaching process is the most harmful for the environment and is largely responsible for the release of dioxins into the environment. Unfortunately, today many U.S. mills still use chlorine gas during the bleaching process.

Non-De-Inked: Recycled paper that has been processed without the removal of ink from the fiber. Eliminating this process saves energy and prevents hazardous waste. The finished product has small black ink specks within the paper.

Additional Resources

EPA – Dioxins, http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/CFM/nceaQFind.cfm?keyword=Dioxin
Chlorine Free Products Association, www.chlorinefreeproducts.org
Reach for Unbleached! www.rfu.org
Conservatree: www.conservatree.com
Environmental Defense: www.environmentaldefense.org/papercalculator
Environmental Paper Network: www.environmentalpaper.org
Green Seal: www.greenseal.org

Plastics

A plastics coding system for packaging was launched in 1988 by the Society of the Plastics Industry. This system began in the U.S., and has since been adopted by industry groups in Australia, Canada, Europe, New Zealand, South Africa and Japan. Recycling facilities often accept only certain types of plastics, so it is important to know how to identify the seven different plastic codes. The code is normally printed on the bottom of plastic containers with one the following designs:

#1 PET: Polyethylene Terephthalate is clear or slightly tinted and has a high melting point; examples: soft drink bottles, peanut butter and salad dressing jars, sheeting for microwave food trays.

#2 HDPE: High Density Polyethylene is translucent or colored; examples: milk jugs, juice bottles, water and detergent bottles, margarine tubs, bleach bottles, lotion, shampoo, and bubble bath bottles.

#3 Vinyl/PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride has a shiny surface and sinks in water; examples: vegetable oil and shampoo bottles, laundry detergent containers, cooking oil bottles, window cleaning product containers, and fresh meat wrappers.

#4 LDPE: Low Density Polyethylene is soft, flexible, waxy, translucent, withstands solvents; examples: margarine tubs, mustard bottles, and coffee can lids.

#5 PP: Polypropylene is hard but still flexible, waxy surface, translucent, withstands solvents; examples: squeezable bottles, potato chip bags, drinking straws, microwave ware, plastic kettles, plastic garden settings, baby baths, plastic hinged lunch boxes.

#6 PS: Polystyrene is clear, glassy, rigid, brittle, opaque, semi-tough; examples: plastic cutlery, imitation 'crystal glassware', low cost brittle toys. Expanded Polystyrene (EPS) is foamed, light weight, energy absorbing, heat insulating; examples: panel insulation, disposable eating wares, and protective packaging for fragile items.

#7 OTHER: Includes all other resins and multi materials (e.g. laminates). Examples are polyamide, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), acrylic, nylon, polycarbonate, PLA, polyurethane (PU) and phenolics.

Cellophane is a cellulose material made from wood pulp and used as a moisture-proof wrapping.

Latex is made from the sap of certain trees and plants.

Biopolymers are biodegradable plastics made from plants such as corn, wheat and potatoes.

Polystyrene Foam (Styrofoam)

Problem

• Polystyrene (PS) foam is made from petroleum, a non-sustainable and heavily polluting resource.
• The production of PS foam causes air pollution and health hazards for workers.
• PS foam is not biodegradable, lasts in landfills for centuries and takes up more space than paper.
• Once in the environment, PS foam quickly crumbles into particles dangerous to wildlife.
• If incinerated by municipal waste facility, PS foam is reduced to toxic, airborne chemicals that cannot be effectively trapped by pollution control devices.
• PS foam may leach toxic chemicals into food, especially when heated in a microwave.
• PS foam that is manufactured with HCFC-22 is harmful to the ozone layer, though is less destructive than its chemical cousins CFC-11 and CFC-12 (33).
• PS foam is not accepted at most recycling facilities and its recycling rate is very low.

Solution

Replace all polystyrene foam products with biodegradable and less toxic alternatives such as recycled and unbleached paper, plant-based plastics, and tree-free fibers such as, bagasse, kenaf or hemp.

What is PS Foam?

Polystyrene foam is a plastic made from petroleum; a non-renewable resource. Most people know polystyrene foam as Styrofoam, which is the trade name of a PS foam product used for housing insulation. Polystyrene foam is a lightweight material, about 95% air

Why Not Use PS Foam?

An environmental health concern associated with polystyrene is the danger associated with styrene, the basic building block of polystyrene. About 300,000 workers in over 20,000 facilities in the U.S. risk exposure to styrene (34). Acute health effects are generally irritation of the skin, eyes, upper respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal system. Chronic exposure affects the central nervous system; symptoms such as depression, headache, fatigue, weakness, as well as minor effects on kidney function and blood can occur. A voluntary compliance program has been adopted by industries using styrene. The U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) unsuccessfully tried to limit the amount of worker exposure to styrene to 50 parts per million - a federal court overturned the ruling in 1992 so the limit now stands at 100 parts per million (35).

The process of making polystyrene pollutes the air and creates large amounts of liquid and solid waste. Toxic chemical byproducts are also released during the combustion of polystyrene foam. Styrene, a component of polystyrene, may leach into food from polystyrene food ware (especially when heated or microwaved). Styrene is a neurotoxin that impairs the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Polystyrene foam packaging waste in the environment poses a threat to both terrestrial and marine wildlife. Wildlife is attracted to food residue on packaging, or in the case of marine animals, can mistake the floating plastic packaging for food. After it is consumed, polystyrene can choke animals or clog their digestive tracts. For this reason, food packaging that is easily biodegradable in the environment can reduce the negative impact of inappropriate disposal. In 2006, the US disposed of 870,000 tons of polystyrene plastic plates and cups (plus 590,000 tons on other polystyrene products), according to the EPA’s report on Municipal Solid Waste. (36).

Frustrated with the increasing amount of un-recyclable food packaging waste in our marine environment, streets, storm drains and landfills, local governments across the nation are prohibiting the use of un-recyclable plastics such as foamed polystyrene in takeout disposable food packaging. These plastics, impractical to recycle due to their lightweight, are the most common form of marine debris and cost local governments millions in storm drain clean up costs. These costs are especially high for communities with impaired waterways. Many communities in the state of California have banned polystyrene takeout food packaging and the number is growing (37).

Can PS Foam be Recycled?

While the technology for recycling polystyrene is available, the market for recycling is very small. Most waste disposal companies in the U.S. do not have the infrastructure to recycle PS foam. Within the last decade, a network of polystyrene recycling plants have developed in the U.S., but few food service operations are linked to this system (38).

Does PS Foam Deplete the Ozone Layer?

Prior to 1988, some PS foam was made by using a gas containing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This chemical was proven to break down ozone in the lower atmosphere. When this issue came to light, polystyrene manufacturers negotiated a gradual phase-out of CFCs in the production process. However, some polystyrene foam is now manufactured with HCFC-22, which, though less destructive than its chemical cousins, CFC-11 and CFC-12, is still a greenhouse gas harmful to the ozone layer (33).

What are the Alternatives to PS Foam?

Products for foodservice and other industries are now being manufactured from post-consumer recycled paper, bamboo, plant-based plastics (“biopolymers”), and other renewable resources. Unsoiled paper products can be recycled, and soiled paper and biopolymer products can be composted.

Cleaning Products

Problem

Each year about six out of every hundred professional janitors are injured by the chemicals that they use. Burns to the eyes and skin are the most common injuries, followed closely by breathing toxic fumes. About one-third of the cleaning chemicals used today have ingredients that can harm you (39).

Cleaning products are the chemicals most frequently involved in poisonings reported to Poison Centers nationally, representing roughly 10% of all 1993 exposures. General-purpose cleaners are estimated to contribute roughly 8% of non-vehicular VOC (volatile organic compounds) emissions in California (40).

Chemicals in some cleaning products contribute to indoor air pollution. EPA studies of human exposure to air pollutants indicate that indoor air levels of many pollutants may be two to five times, and occasionally, more than 100 times higher than outdoor levels. These levels of indoor air pollutants are of particular concern because it is estimated that most people spend as much as 90% of their time indoors (41).

Solution

Purchase environmentally preferable cleaners that meet the following standards:

• No carcinogens
• No or low VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
• No ozone depleting or global warming substances
• Biodegradable
• No mutagens, teratogens, or Neurotoxins
• No APE’s (alkylphenol ethoxylates)
• No hazardous ingredients
• No phosphates
• No or low skin, eye & inhalation irritants
• No or low dyes and fragrances
• Moderate pH (4.0 – 11.5)
• Recyclable packaging
• Flash point > 140°F & fire rating = 1
• Non-aerosol containers (difficult to recycle)
• Reactivity rating = 1
• Recycled content packaging
• Vapor pressure < 19 mm Hg at 20ºC
• Refillable/returnable containers
• LD50> 500 mg/kg
• Concentrated products

Chemical Facts

The World Resources Institute states, “of the 17,000 chemicals that appear in common household products, only 30% have been adequately tested for their negative effects on human health; less than 10% have been tested for their effect on the nervous system; and nothing is known about the combined effects of these chemicals when mixed within the body” (42).

"Signal words" required by the U.S. EPA Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances warn consumers of the risk for (undiluted) chemical products. This rating system is based on the greatest risk for inhalation, dermal exposure, harmful effects on the eye or skin. Toxicologists use the term "LD-50" as a benchmark to determine the lethal dose for 50% of a population (lower LD-50 = greater toxicity). LD-50 rankings are as follows:

1) Danger: a single taste to a teaspoon can be fatal to an adult (LD-50: ‹50 mg/kg = category 1)

2) Warning: a teaspoon to an ounce can be fatal to an adult (LD-50: 50-500 mg/kg = category 2)

3) Caution: an ounce to a pint can be fatal to an adult (LD-50: ›500 mg/kg = category 3-4)

Hazardous ingredients, which are found in most conventional cleaning products, are rated according to their "permissible exposure level" (PEL). The PEL tells how much of an air contaminant a worker can be exposed to for 8 hours a day, 40 hours a week, over a working lifetime (30 years), without suffering adverse health effects.

The "threshold limit value" (TLV) is a term used to express how much of a substance in the air nearly everyone can be exposed to day after day, without adverse effects.

Unfortunately, because most chemicals have not been tested for their long-term health implications, reproductive l Fooeffects or potential to cause cancer, these PEL and TLV descriptions merely serve as warnings.

Linen Service

Problem

The EPA reports that each year, laundry detergent formulators use billions of pounds of chemicals, many of which are toxic to aquatic organisms. Almost all of these chemicals are released into the environment in wastewater (43).

Solution

• Use linen service providers that use environmentally preferable cleaners as recognized by the EPA Institutional & Industrial Laundry Partnership: www.epa.gov/opptintr/dfe/projects/iil/index.htm
• Create or expand an on-site laundry system with organic linens, ecologically safe cleaners as well as energy and water-efficient machines.

Pest Management

Problem

Many pesticides are known to cause adverse health effects including acute and persistent injury to the nervous system, lung damage, injury to reproductive organs, dysfunction of the immune and endocrine/hormone systems, birth defects, and cancer. Of the 28 conventional pesticides that, according to EPA estimate, are the most widely used by commercial pesticide applicators, over 40% are classified by the agency as carcinogens (able to cause cancer). Total use of the pesticides classified as carcinogens, for all U.S. applications, is a staggering 350 million pounds per year (44).

Solution

Examine the source of the problem as chemicals may not be necessary. When applicable, use only non-toxic or least-toxic pest management techniques, such as integrated pest management (IPM) and hazard management programs.

Candles & Chafing Fuel

Problem

Paraffin, the final byproduct in the petroleum refining process, is the predominant wax used in the candle industry. The soot given off from burning paraffin candles is the same as that given off by burning diesel fuel, emitting toluene, benzene, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), and naphthalene--substances found in paint, lacquer and varnish removers. The EPA has determined that benzene & toluene are human carcinogens. About 30% of the candles on the market have core wicks containing lead, a potentially toxic heavy metal. (The purpose is to make the wicks stand up straight to facilitate candle manufacturing). The University of Michigan has conducted a study that indicated that 1/3 of candles released more lead into the air than is recommended as safe by the EPA (45). Most fuel canisters (chafing fuels) contain hazardous ingredients that require special storage (due to high flash point), cause toxic emissions, and cause land and water pollution upon disposal.

Solution

• One hundred percent beeswax candles are a cleaner alternative, they are non-toxic and non-allergenic and often available from local sources. As a vegan option, soybean and palm oil candles are widely available.
• Purchase non-toxic chafing fuel.

Organic Food

Problem

People have been growing “organic” food since the agricultural revolution roughly 10-12,000 years ago. Beginning in the 20th century, with the industrialization of agriculture, farming began to incorporate the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers. These recent developments in agriculture have been linked to:

• Cancer (from pesticides & herbicides) • Soil erosion • Water pollution • Air pollution via burning fossil fuels • Loss of biodiversity • Long-term economic losses through resource exploitation

Solution

Purchase foods that are grown without the use of toxic chemicals. National Organic Standards, which were created and are enforced by the USDA, prohibit the use of toxic synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, irradiation, sewage sludge, and genetic engineering. USDA standards also require the use of organic seeds when available.

Local Food

Problem

It is estimated that the average American meal travels about 1500 miles to get from farm to plate (46).

Solution

Purchase foods that are grown locally and without the use of toxic chemicals. National Organic Standards, which were created and are enforced by the USDA, prohibit the use of toxic synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, irradiation, sewage sludge, and genetic engineering. USDA standards also require the use of organic seeds when available.

Why Support Organic & Local Foods?

Prevent Soil Erosion: Since agriculture began in the U.S., one third of the nation's topsoil has been lost to erosion according to the Natural Resource Conservation Service. An estimated 1.8 billion tons of topsoil were lost annually from U.S. farmland from 1997 to 2001. Soil is eroding seven times faster than it naturally forms (47). Soil is the foundation of the food chain in organic farming. In industrial farming, poor soil conservation measures have caused the worst soil erosion in history.

Protect Water Quality: The U.S. Geological Survey’s national water quality monitoring program found that all of the samples the agency analyzed from major rivers were contaminated with at least one pesticide. Smaller streams were almost as frequently contaminated: 99 percent of the urban stream samples and 92 percent of the agricultural stream samples contained at least one pesticide. At least one pesticide was detected in almost 60 percent of the wells in agricultural areas and in almost 50 percent of the wells in urban areas (44).

Save Energy: American farms have changed drastically in the last three generations, from the family-based small businesses dependent on human energy, to large-scale factory farms highly dependent on fossil fuels. Modern farming uses more petroleum than any other single industry, consuming 12 percent of the country's total energy supply (48). More energy is now used to produce synthetic fertilizers than to till, cultivate, and harvest all the crops in the United States. In contrast, organic farming is still mainly based on practices such as using composted soil and crop covers rather than synthetic inputs. In addition, locally-grown foods use less energy for transportation and cooling or freezing during transportation. Packaging materials are also saved when food is bought locally. Buying local food also helps to make farming more profitable and selling farmland for development less attractive (49).

Keep Chemicals Off Your Plate: Many pesticides approved for use by the EPA were registered before extensive research linking these chemicals to cancer and other diseases had been established. Now the EPA considers that 60 percent of all herbicides, 90 percent of all fungicides, and 30 percent of all insecticides are carcinogenic (50). Pesticides are poisons designed to kill living organisms, and have demonstrated harmful effects to humans. In addition to cancer, pesticides are implicated in birth defects, nerve damage and genetic mutation.

Protect Farm Worker's Health: Because agricultural pesticides account for more than 75 percent of total U.S. pesticide use, farmers and farm workers are often exposed to larger amounts of pesticides and more frequently than other people. EPA has estimated that at least 10,000 and as many as 20,000 pesticide-related illnesses and injuries occur among farmers and farm workers every year (44). A study by the National Cancer Institute and the University of Kansas found that if farmers were exposed to herbicides 20 days a year or more, they were 600 percent more likely to contract lymphatic cancer than people who did not work with such chemicals (51). The risk for farmers who actually mixed or applied the chemicals increased eightfold. Farm worker health is also a serious problem in developing nations, where pesticide use is often poorly regulated. Several of the pesticides banned from use in the U.S. such as DDT are still manufactured for export to other countries.

Support Family Farmers: Although more and more large-scale farms are making the conversion to organic practices, most organic farms are small independently owned and operated family farms of less than 100 acres. Small family farms accounted for 90 percent of the farms in the U.S. but produced a modest share (28 percent) of farm output in 2001. Large and very large accounted for only 7 percent of farms but 58 percent of the value of production in 2001 (52). Buying local food also keeps your dollars circulating in your community.

Support a True Economy: Although organic foods are sometimes more expensive than conventional foods, conventional food prices do not reflect the hidden cost borne by taxpayers, including nearly $13.4 billion in Federal Subsidies in 2006. Cumulative Farm Subsidies over the last 12 years total more than $177 billion (53). Other hidden costs include increased health care costs, pesticide regulation and testing costs, hazardous waste disposal and cleanup costs, and numerous environmental repercussions.

Promote Agricultural Biodiversity: A monoculture is a large plot of land planted with only one crop. While this approach tripled farm production between 1950 and 1970, the lack of natural diversity of plant life has left the soil lacking in natural minerals and nutrients. To replace the nutrients, chemical fertilizers are used, often in large quantities. The dependence on monoculture crops can lead to large scale failures when the crop becomes susceptible to a pathogen or when a change in weather patterns occur.

It Tastes Better: There's a good reason many chefs use organic foods in their recipes. They taste better. Organic farming starts with the nutrients of the soil, which eventually leads to the nourishment of the plant and ultimately benefits our palates. Local food is fresher and tastes better than food shipped long distances from other states or countries. Local farmers can offer produce varieties bred for taste and freshness rather than for shipping and long shelf life.

Organic Markets

Exceptionally high market growth rates have pushed the global organic food and drink sales toward $40 billion in 2006 (54). Many sectors of this market are experiencing supply shortages due to the increased demand for organic foods.

Human Health

The USDA’s Pesticide Data Program in 2006 showed that 64 percent of fruits and vegetables tested had at least one pesticide residue, based on 13,658 tested samples. Most of the samples that tested positive had 20 – 25 different pesticides detected,with spinach having 48 detected pesticides. The USDA found pesticide contamination of wheat, a staple of many American diets, in 69% of the samples tested, 30% of the peanut butter and 7% of the poultry (55).

According to data from the Environmental Working Group, the 12 most pesticide-contaminated fruits and vegetables are as follows (56):

1) Nectarines
2) Peaches
3) Apples
4) Strawberries
5) Cherries
6) Imported Grapes
7) Sweet Bell Peppers
8) Celery
9) Lettuce
10) Spinach
11) Potatoes
12) Pears

In 1998, a study at Johns Hopkins University examined organically and conventionally grown apples, potatoes, pears, wheat, and sweet corn in the western suburbs of Chicago and analyzed them for their mineral content. Four to fifteen samples were taken for each food group. On a per-weight basis, average levels of essential minerals were much higher in the organically grown than in the conventionally grown food. The organically grown food averaged 63% higher in calcium, 78% higher in chromium, 73% higher in iron, 118% higher in magnesium, 178% higher in molybdenum, 91% higher in phosphorus, 125% higher in potassium and 60% higher in zinc. The organically raised food also averaged 29% lower in mercury than the conventionally raised food (57).

Organic Meat & Dairy

If you choose to eat animal products, you can make a significant difference for your health and the environment by choosing organic meat and dairy raised on sustainable farms.

Top 10 Reasons to Eat Organic Meat and Dairy (58)

1. Free of antibiotics, added hormones, GMO feed (genetically modified organisms), and other drugs.
2. No genetically engineered animals.
3. Animals are not fed animal parts that can lead to diseases like Mad Cow.
4. More humane, ethical treatment of animals.
5. Animals are allowed to free-range and graze.
6. Manure is used as fertilizer in small farms; industrial farms pollute with it (due to differences in scale).
7. Animals are integral to small farms for nutrient recycling and product diversity.
8. Synthetic pesticides and fertilizers are not used on the food or land.
9. Diversity of animal species on small farms promotes genetic diversity.
10. Factory farms use large amounts of nonrenewable fossil fuel and cause topsoil erosion.

Shade-Grown Coffee

"Shade-grown" coffee is grown under a canopy of diverse species of shade trees, often on small farms using traditional techniques. Among the many benefits of using shade-grown coffee production methods, in contrast to sun-grown coffee, are that it provides food and shelter for songbirds, as well as habitat for numerous other species of animals and plants. When coffee arrived in the New World, it was cultivated in the shade of native forest trees; as cacao had been grown for centuries. In the last 30 years, however, new sun tolerant coffees have been developed. While sun coffee produces substantially increased yields, it requires additions of chemical fertilizers, as well as a range of insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. In addition, the lack of tree root structures in the soil of sun coffee plantations causes increased erosion and toxic run-off (59). There are currently two certification programs for shade-grown coffees. The Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center (SMBC) certifies coffee as "Bird Friendly^®" if it is organically grown under conditions that are deemed ecologically sound for migratory birds. In addition, Rainforest Alliance Certified (formerly ECO-O.K.) coffee is shade-grown by family farmers.

Additional Resources

Organic Consumers Association, www.purefood.org
Organic Farming Research Council, www.ofrf.org
Organic Trade Association, www.ota.com
USDA National Organic Program, www.ams.usda.gov/nop
TransFair USA, http://www.transfairusa.org/

Vegetarian & Vegan Food

Problem

Loss of wildlife habitat / Loss of biodiversity / Soil erosion and stream degradation
Increased greenhouse gas emissions (nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide & methane)

Solution

Reducing our consumption of meat and dairy is not only a positive step toward pollution reduction and an efficient use of resources. Consider these facts:

Pounds of potatoes that can be grown on 1 acre of land: 20,000

Pounds of beef that can be produced on 1 acre of land: 165

Percentage of U.S. agricultural land used to produce beef: 56

Pounds of grain and soybeans needed to produce 1 pound of feedlot beef: 16

Pounds of protein fed to chickens to produce 1 pound of protein as chicken flesh: 5 pounds

Pounds of protein fed to hogs to produce 1 pound of protein as hog flesh: 7.5 pounds (60)

For those not interested in vegetarian or vegan options, choosing to eat meat and dairy that is grown locally and by organic methods also greatly reduces the impact to ecosystems and human health.

Other considerations:

Global Food Supply

A plant-based diet can feed significantly more people than a meat-centered diet. A study conducted by Cornell University concluded that if everyone in New York state followed a low-fat vegetarian diet, the state could directly support almost 50 percent more people, agriculturally. With today's high-meat, high-dairy diet, the state is able to support directly only 22 percent of its population (61).

U.S. Agriculture Pollution

The most significant threat to water resources across the U.S. now comes from “non-point source” pollution such as agricultural runoff and stormwater drainage. Common water pollutants include pesticides, lead, arsenic and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Current farming practices often result in the release of sediment, fertilizers, pesticides and animal wastes to local watersheds. The local impact has worsened as small, family farms have been replaced by centralized operations housing thousands of animals in assembly-line conditions. Factory farms have multiplied in recent years, spreading into many states that lack adequate environmental controls. Every year almost two trillion pounds of animal waste are produced nationally from 1.5 billion cattle, hogs, poultry & sheep (10). Antibiotics are routinely used on factory farm animals to aid in the digestion of unnatural grain feed.

Those animals that are fortunate enough to not be raised in feedlots and allowed a natural vegetarian diet are sometimes left to graze in pastures with critical riparian zones. The riparian zone refers to the thin ribbons of green vegetation that border rivers, streams and other water bodies. It protects the waterway from for degraded water quality, increased erosion and runoff, damaged fish and wildlife habitat, and decreased recreational opportunities. With controlled grazing strategies or restricting livestock completely from these sensitive areas, many of the detrimental impacts to water quality can be minimized or greatly reduced.

In 2002, states reported that about 45% of assessed stream miles, 47% of assessed lake acres, and 32% of assessed bay and estuarine square miles were not clean enough to support uses such as fishing and swimming. About 30% of U.S. waters were assessed by the states for this report. Leading causes of impairment in assessed waters include excess levels of nutrients, metals (primarily mercury), sediment and organic enrichment. Top sources of impairment include agricultural activities, hydrologic modifications, atmospheric deposition, industry, and unknown or unspecified sources (11).

Grazing and Wildlife

Lethal predator control programs kill wildlife that have the potential to cause harm to farm animals such as sheep and cattle. Having already eliminated most of the wolves and grizzly bears of the U.S., hunters contracted by state and federal government agencies kill about 100,000 coyotes, bobcats, mountain lions, feral hogs, and bison each year to prevent predation, grazing competition, and the spread of disease (62). According to a new study, despite decades of predator control, which has resulted in more than 5 million deaths of predators in the last six decades, lethal predator controls (which are biologically and socially expensive) do not benefit ranchers (63).

Human Health

Because the emphasis is on non-meat food sources, a vegetarian diet generally contains less fat and cholesterol, and typically includes more fiber. The American Dietetic Association states that a vegetarian lifestyle tends to result in lower rates of heart disease, high blood pressure, type 2 diabetes and some forms of cancer. Vegetarians also tend to have lower body mass indexes and cholesterol levels (64).

Fish and Seafood

Problem

Unsustainable fishing practices are threatening fish populations.

Pollutants, like mercury & PCBs, contaminate certain fish species.

Solution

Eat fish species that are that are harvested sustainably and free of harmful pollutants

A free “Pocket Seafood Selector” is available at: www.blueocean.org

Overfishing

In recent years, fish populations around the world, including popular restaurant species, have seen dramatic declines. One reason is overfishing -- harvesting fish faster than a population can replenish itself. The depletion issue was brought to the forefront at the start of the twenty-first century in The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2002 , which indicated that "An estimated 25 percent of the major marine fish stocks … are underexploited or moderately exploited … About 47 percent of the main stocks or species groups are fully exploited … 18 percent of stocks or species groups are reported as overexploited … The remaining 10 percent have become significantly depleted, or are recovering from depletion” (65). Consumption of fish and fishery products has risen by 240% since 1960 creating the demand (66). Depleting the worlds fish stocks also contribute to a decline in marine birds and mammals, which depend on these stocks for food.

Health Concerns

While eating fish can provide many health benefits, it can pose considerable health risks when contaminated with pollutants such as heavy metals (e.g. mercury and lead), industrial chemicals (e.g. PCBs) and pesticides (e.g. DDT and dieldrin). Contaminants enter the water through industrial and municipal discharges, agricultural runoff, and storm water runoff. Rain can also wash chemicals from the land or air into streams and rivers. These contaminants are then carried downstream into lakes, reservoirs, estuaries and oceans.

The amount of pollutants in any given fish depends on many factors such as species, size, age and location. Generally, larger and older fish have had more time to bioaccumulate toxins from their environment than smaller and younger fish. In addition, large predatory fish (like sharks and swordfish) near the top of marine food chains are more likely to have high levels of toxins than fish lower in marine food chains due to the process of biomagnification. In humans, certain contaminants such as mercury, PCBs and dioxins build up in your body over time. Health problems that may result from eating contaminated fish range from small, hard-to-detect changes to birth defects and cancer.

The best ways to reduce exposure are:

Reduce consumption of fish known to be high in contaminants.

Eat fish from a variety of water bodies, and try not to eat the same kind of fish more than once a week.

Prepare your fish in a way that cuts down on toxins (remove skin and let fat drain away).

In 2003, the FDA and EPA came together to create a unified fish consumption advisory for mercury. This new advisory applies to pregnant women, women who might become pregnant, and nursing mothers:

1. DO NOT EAT shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish because they contain high levels of mercury.

2. Levels of mercury in other fish can vary. Do not eat the same type of fish over and over again and do not eat a certain species of fish and shellfish more than once a week.

3. Check local advisories about the safety of fish caught by family and friends in your local rivers and streams. If no advice is available, you can safely eat up to 6 ounces (one meal) per week of fish you catch from local waters, but do not consume any other fish during that week.

Follow the same rules when feeding fish to your young child, decreasing the serving sizes

Mercury levels in tuna vary. Tuna steaks and canned albacore tuna generally contain higher levels of mercury than canned light tuna.

Additional Resources

Environmental Defense, environmentaldefense.org/seafood/fishhome.cfm
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org
Marine Stewardship Council, www.msc.org
Ocean Conservancy, www.oceanconservancy.org
Blue Ocean Institute, blueocean.org/

Genetically-Modified Food

Problem

Genetically-modified foods pose known and unknown risks.

Solution

Certified organic food is free of genetically-modified organisms.

Genetically-Modified Organisms (GMO) Basics

Genetic engineering refers to technologies that alter the genetic makeup of organisms such as animals, plants, or bacteria. Genetic engineering has been used by humanity for quite some time through the hybridization of plant species. This traditional breeding technique operates within established natural boundaries that allow reproduction to take place only between closely related organisms and at a slow pace. Modern genetic engineering often crosses genes between highly unrelated species that would not likely crossbreed in nature. Genetic modification is gaining momentum due to the exponential growth in the human population, increased demand for food worldwide and the growth of large-scale food production. Some of the desired traits are virus, insect, and herbicide resistance, hearty plants for harsh weather conditions, increased desired nutrients and flowering or fruiting earlier and longer.

Technologies for genetically modifying foods offer some hope for meeting some of the 21st Century's greatest challenges. Like all new technologies, they also pose some risks, both known and unknown. Controversies surrounding GM foods and crops commonly focus on human and environmental safety, labeling and consumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction, and environmental conservation.

Potential Environmental Harm

Gene Transfer to Wild or Weedy Relatives: Pollen migration, by the wind, can contaminate crops on farms that choose not to grow GM crops. This “genetic pollution” can occur over large distances.

Squandering of Valuable Pest Susceptibility Genes: Non-toxic pesticides used in organic farming, such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), are being genetically engineered into plants. Continuous exposure to these pesticides selects for the rare resistance genes in the pest population and in time will render the Bt pesticide useless to organic farmers.

Creation of New or Worse Viruses: One of the most common applications of genetic engineering is the production of virus-tolerant crops. Such crops are produced by engineering components of viruses into the plant genomes. For reasons not well understood, plants producing viral components on their own are resistant to subsequent infection by those viruses. Such plants, however, pose other risks of creating new or worse viruses.

Unknown Harm: At this time, ecology is too poorly understood to be certain about long term effects of GM technologies.

Potential Human Health Hazards

New Allergens in the Food Supply: Genetic engineering routinely moves proteins into the food supply from organisms that have never been consumed as foods. Some of those proteins could be food allergens, since virtually all known food allergens are proteins.

Antibiotic Resistance: Almost all of commercial GE crops are bred using antibiotic resistance genes as a marker. (This process is unrelated to the agricultural use and is just part of the breeding process.) Antibiotic resistance can be passed on to livestock and humans that consume these crops.

Production of New Toxins: Many plants contain low levels of toxic substances to help defend themselves from the predators in their environment. In some cases, addition of new genetic material through genetic engineering could reactivate inactive pathways or otherwise increase the levels of toxic substances within the plants.

Loss of Natural Plant Defenses: Genetic engineering might be used to delete or turn off genes associated with plant defense mechanisms.

Unknown Harm: Powerful new techniques can lead to unpredictable reproduction, mutation, and migration (cross-pollination). Once released, it will be virtually impossible to recall all genetically engineered organisms for retesting.

Additional Resources Physicians and Scientists for Responsible Application of Science and Technology, www.psrast.org
Union of Concerned Scientists, www.ucsusa.org

Energy

Problem

The restaurant industry consumes 1/3 of all U.S. energy used by the retail sector, and is five times more energy intensive than other retail, office and lodging industries. Ninety-three percent of electricity produced in the U.S. comes from polluting non-renewable sources such as coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear power. The burning of these non-renewable materials are the number one cause of industrial air pollution around the globe.

Solution

We need to decrease our consumption and waste of energy

We need to source more of our energy from renewables such as solar, wind and geothermal

Energy Facts

Energy profile of the average restaurant:

22% Food Preparation (basic cooking appliances)
18% Sanitation
17% HVAC
13% Lighting
13% Food Preparation (all other)
11% Kitchen exhaust and ventilation
6% Refrigeration

In California, there are approximately 100,000 food service operations, which annually spend $3.3 billion for energy. These restaurants operate roughly one million kitchen appliances. A single commercial appliance can use more energy than a typical residence. In California alone, existing energy efficient technologies can provide an estimated $657 million in energy savings.

The U.S. Department of Energy reports that in 2007, electricity was supplied by the following sources (67):

1) Petroleum (39.2%)
2) Natural Gas (23.3%)
3) Coal (22.4%)
4) Renewable (4.3%)
5) Large Scale Hydroelectric (2.4%)

The generation of electric power produces more pollution than any other single industry in the U.S. In 1998, the U.S. electricity industry was responsible for:

• 67% of all emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), the leading component of acid rain and fine particulates
• 41% of all man-made global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), the leading greenhouse gas believed to contribute to global warming & climate change (68)
• 25% of all emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), a key component of ozone (smog), acid rain, and fine particulates
• 34% of all emissions of mercury (Hg), a toxic heavy metal that accumulates as you move up the food chain

In regards to solar energy, the sunlight the Earth receives in 30 minutes is equivalent to all the power used by humankind in one year. About 200,000 homes already use solar power as do some corporate buildings. Photovoltaic modules covering less than a half percent of the total land in the U.S. could supply all of the electrical needs of the country. San Diego Mayoral candidate Jim Bell has calculated that “if we only covered 20 percent of what's already covered by parking lots and buildings with solar cells, our region could be completely energy self sufficient.”

Wind power was the fastest growing energy source in the world during most of the 1990s. There is enough wind in the Dakotas and Texas alone to power the entire United States.

Water

Problem

The average food service facility uses 300,000 gallons of water per year. Restaurants spend a lot of money buying, heating and disposing of water.

Solution

Reduce water usage in your operations

Restaurants Water Use

The following data describes the average restaurant’s energy profile. Water uses for each category are listed in parentheses.

35% Food Preparation (steamers, combination ovens, pasta cookers, steam tables, table water, sinks)

28% HVAC (evaporative cooling)

18% Sanitation (dish, glass & pot washers, pre-rinse sprayers, conveyor spray, manual washing)

13% Lighting (N/A)

6% Refrigeration (water-cooled condensing ice machines)

In the U.S., an estimated 70 million meals are served restaurants each day. If one-quarter of the customers declined water service, 26 million gallons of fresh water would be saved every day.

Green Building

Problem

Buildings significantly alter the environment. According to Worldwatch Institute, building construction consumes 40% of the raw stone, gravel, and sand used globally each year, and 25% of the virgin wood. Buildings also account for 40 % of the energy and 16% of the water used annually worldwide. In the United States, about as much construction and demolition waste is produced as municipal garbage. Unhealthy indoor air is found in 30% of new and renovated buildings worldwide (69).

Solution

New construction and renovation should employ green building design and materials. The LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating System™ is a voluntary, consensus-based national standard for developing high-performance, sustainable buildings. You can visit their website at www.usgbc.org.

Waste Reduction

Problem

The average restaurant produces 50,000 pounds of garbage per year. Typically, close to 95% of restaurants’ waste could be recycled or composted. These unsustainable patterns cause the following problems:

• Overcrowded landfills
• Land, water and groundwater pollution
• Air pollution from incinerators
• Long-term economic losses through unsustainable resource use

Solution

Recycling not only diverts waste from landfills and incinerators, but also supplies material for post-consumer recycled products. Recycling saves natural resources, energy, pollution, and money. In the years 2001-2002, a medium-sized Certified Green Restaurant™ in San Diego saved $2220 per year after implementing a comprehensive recycling program. Examples of items that can be recycled versus thrown away include:

• Paper: cardboard, office & menu paper, etc.
• Plastic: beverage, food and cleaning product containers
• Glass: wine, beer, soft drink, and other beverage bottles
• Metal: food and beverage cans
• Grease, Oil & Bone waste
• Ink & Toner cartridges
• Fluorescent lamps & ballasts
• Batteries

Pollution prevention measures include:

• Ordering bulk to reduced packaging of materials
• Using concentrated & reusable products
• Donating excess food
• Replacing Polystyrene foam (“Styrofoam”)
• Stormwater pollution prevention & grease traps
• Public transportation, efficient & alternative fueled vehicles

Recycling

U.S. Recycling

In 2005, we generated 245.7 million tons of waste in the United States. That can be translated to 4.54 pounds of waste per day per person. Also in 2005, America recycled roughly 24% of solid waste from homes and businesses, the rest being incinerated or tossed into landfills (70).

Paper & Cardboard

Plastics

Glass

In 1996, 37 billion glass containers were produced in the U.S. In 1995, glass made up 6.2% of U.S. solid waste, totaling 12.8 million tons. Roughly 25%, 3.1 million tons, of this glass was recycled. All of this glass is recyclable, but most ended up in landfills or incinerators. In 1996, 36% of all glass produced in the U.S. was recycled, up from 22% in 1988. In 1995, Americans consumed:

• 5.12 million tons of beer & soft drink bottles (33% recycled)
• 1.79 million tons of wine & liquor bottles (26% recycled)
• 4.62 million tons of other jars (22% recycled)
• 1.3 million tons of durable goods (0% recycled)

Metal

In 1995, metals made up 7.6% of U.S. solid waste, totaling 15.8 million tons. Between 1975 and 1996 U.S. consumption of aluminum beverage cans increased from less than 20 billion to about 100 billion, an increase of 500%. Most of these materials are recyclable, but ended up in landfills or incinerators. In 1995, 6.2 million tons of metals were recycled in the U.S. The average aluminum beverage can in the U.S. contains about 51% post consumer recycled aluminum (71). Aluminum can recycling saves 95% of the energy needed to make aluminum compared to mining.

Mercury

The U.S. EPA issued the first federal universal waste rule for mercury-containing equipment in 1995. Universal wastes are items such as batteries, thermostats, pesticides, and lamps that are commonly thrown into the trash by households and small businesses. These standards are designed to encourage collection and keep these wastes out of municipal landfills and incinerators. When mercury leaches out of landfills and into water, microorganisms convert some portion to methylmercury, a highly toxic form of mercury. There is growing evidence that methylmercury exposure can have adverse cardiovascular effects for adults, resulting in elevated blood pressure and incidence of heart attack. According to the Centers for Disease Control, eight percent of the women of childbearing age have levels of mercury in their blood that exceeds the level EPA considers safe – primarily due to air pollution from power plants (72).

Composting

Food & Grease Waste

Composting is nature's way of recycling organic material into soil. Food scraps, leaves, yard trimmings, paper, wood, manures, and the remains of agricultural crops are excellent organic materials to use. Composting not only helps to reduce the amount of waste going to landfills, it produces a valuable soil amendment which can improve the texture, fertility, and water retention of the soil.

Food waste comprises about half of a restaurant’s waste stream. In 1995, food waste made up 6.7% of U.S. solid waste, totaling 14 million tons. In 1995, 9.6 million tons of compost were recovered in the U.S. While most of this material was from green yard waste, many cities, such as San Francisco, Oakland, New York, and San Diego, are beginning to implement food waste composting programs (71).

Grease is a common problem for restaurants of all types. The average full-service restaurant will wash 9 to 20 pounds of grease down the drain for every 150 meals served. Grease waste has the potential to severely impact operations and, in some cases, violate wastewater discharges. Equipment that may be connected to an interceptor include: three-compartment sinks, scullery sinks, floor drains and floor sinks along the cook line, prewash sinks at dishwash stations, other fixtures that may be determined to contribute grease or oil to the wastewater system.

Sources:

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Glossary of Terms

Acid Rain - rain, snow, sleet, or hail containing high levels of sulfuric or nitric acids with a pH below 5.5-5.6 caused mainly by automobile exhaust and the burning of high-sulfur industrial fuels

Bioaccumulation - The accumulation of a substance over time, such as a toxic chemical, in various tissues of a living organism

Biocapacity - the capacity of a given biologically productive area to generate an on-going supply of renewable resources and to absorb wastes

Biodegradable - a material that is broken down by biological activity, especially by enzymatic action, leading to a significant change in the chemical structure of the material

Biodiversity - the variability among living organisms on the earth, including the variability within and between species and within and between ecosystems

Biomagnification - the increasing concentration of a substance, such as a toxic chemical, in the tissues of organisms at successively higher levels in a food chain

Biomass - the total mass of living matter within a given unit of environmental area OR plant material, vegetation, or agricultural waste used as a fuel or energy source

Biopolymers - biodegradable plastics made from plants such as corn, wheat and potatoes.

Carbon Dioxide - a colorless, odorless, incombustible gas, formed during respiration, combustion, and organic decomposition

Carbon Sink - a carbon reservoir that is increasing in size, and is the opposite of a carbon dioxide "source".  Natural sinks are oceans, plants and other organisms that use photosynthesis to remove carbon from the atmosphere.

 

Carcinogen - a cancer-causing substance or agent

Carrying Capacity - The maximum number of individuals that a given ecosystem can support without detrimental effects

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) - any of various halocarbon compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine, once used widely as aerosol propellants and refrigerants. Chlorofluorocarbons are believed to cause depletion of the atmospheric ozone layer.

Climate Change - any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) - the practice of raising farm animals in confinement at high stocking density

Contour Plowing - the farming practice of plowing across a slope following its contours. The rows formed slow water runoff so that the soil is not washed away.

Criteria air pollutants – a group of six air pollutants with national standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  They are sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, Lead, and ground-level ozone.

Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDT) – a persistent, toxic synthetic organochlorine insecticide used to control mosquitoes and other insects

Desertification - the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting primarily from human activities

Dioxin – a term for a family of highly carcinogenic and toxic chemical compounds that are formed through combustion, chlorine bleaching and manufacturing processes

Ecological footprint – an analysis that measures human demand on nature by comparing human consumption of natural resources with the Earth's ecological capacity to regenerate them

Ecosystem - a community of organisms together with their physical environment, viewed as a system of interacting and interdependent relationships

Erosion - the group of processes both natural and human-caused including weathering, dissolution, abrasion, corrosion, and transportation, by which material is worn away from the earth's surface

Estuary – the area where fresh water rivers flow into the ocean causing a mixing of fresh and salt water

Extinction – the complete die-out of a plant or animal species

Fossil Fuels - a hydrocarbon deposit, such as petroleum, coal, or natural gas, derived from living matter of a previous geologic time and used for fuel

Greenhouse Gas - any of the atmospheric gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect by absorbing infrared radiation produced by the solar warming of the Earth's surface. They include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapor.

Habitat - the area or environment where an organism or ecological community normally lives or occurs

Integrated Pest Management - a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods which may include mechanical devices, physical devices, genetic, biological, legal, cultural management or chemical management

Monoculture - the cultivation of a single crop on a farm or region

Nonpoint Source Pollution - water pollution affecting a water body from diffuse sources, such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river

Old-growth Forests - a type of forest that has attained great age and so exhibits unique biological features

Organic – food grown without artificial fertilizers or pesticides

Organochlorines - any of various hydrocarbon pesticides, such as DDT, that contain chlorine

Ozone Layer - a region of the upper atmosphere, between 10 and 20 miles in altitude, containing a relatively high concentration of ozone that absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation in a wavelength range not screened by other atmospheric components

Paraffin - a waxy white or colorless solid hydrocarbon mixture used to make candles, wax paper, lubricants, and sealing materials

Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) - any of a family of industrial compounds produced by chlorination of biphenyl, noted primarily as an environmental pollutant that accumulates in animal tissue with resultant pathogenic and mutagenic effects

Persistent Organic Pollutants - organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes

Pesticide - a substance or mixture of substances used for preventing, controlling, or lessening the damage caused by a pest

Point Source Pollution - a single identifiable localized source of air, water, thermal, noise or light pollution

Post-consumer Recycled Material - a material that has served its intended use and instead of being disposed of is being reused in a different product

Pre-consumer Recycled Material - material that is recycled before it is used by a consumer such as paper mill scraps that are recycled at a paper mill

Recovered Materials - waste materials and byproducts that have been recovered or diverted from solid waste landfills but do not include those materials and byproducts generated from, and commonly reused within, an original manufacturing process

Riparian Zone - the interface between land and a water body often related to soil conservation, biodiversity and the health of aquatic ecosystems

Runoff - the flow of water, from rain, snowmelt, or other sources, over the land surface

Smog - a type of air pollution that results from large amounts of coal burning in an area; the word "smog" is a combination of the words “smoke” and “fog.”

Sustainability - the ability of an ecosystem to maintain ecological processes, functions, biodiversity and productivity into the future

Vegan - a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animal derived products for food, clothing or any other purpose

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) - organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapor pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere

Watershed - a region or area bounded peripherally by a divide and draining ultimately to a particular watercourse or body of water